{"id":13,"date":"2020-04-14T19:49:57","date_gmt":"2020-04-14T19:49:57","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/umsldigitalhumanities.org\/Ivory_Clark_Exit_Project_2020\/?page_id=13"},"modified":"2020-05-04T19:10:58","modified_gmt":"2020-05-04T19:10:58","slug":"representations-of-19th-century-masculinity","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/umsldigitalhumanities.org\/Ivory_Clark_Exit_Project_2020\/","title":{"rendered":"Portraits and Masculinity"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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Introduction<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

A portrait can be defined as any art work associated with a likeness of a person.  The purpose of this digital exhibit is to illustrate the identity politics present in 19th portraiture, through the analysis of several artworks from the Mercantile Library Art Museum\u2019s collection.  This exhibit will also highlight the parallels between American and Native masculinity . The selected works were chosen because they represent what masculinity during the 19th century was thought to be and as it was presented by the various artists.  The combination of several factors including attire, expression, background, body language, and accessories work in harmony to produce a clear and concise message of who these individuals desired to be to viewers.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Portraiture and Identity<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

At the core of portraiture is identity.  Portraits are visual representations of identity.  Portraiture can be used to project self hood and communicate different aspects of one’s personality. When considering portraiture, one must also consider the different visual elements present. The way in which the sitter gestures, their expression, attire, the accessories surrounding them, and the setting of the portrait itself must all be carefully examined. One must consider visual interactions  between sitters and audiences, as well. If the core of portraiture is identity, then the core of identity is individuality. Individuality connects with the notion of likeness.  The idea of likeness is not a stable concept and can change depending on several factors. For example, the likeness of a sitter can shift when depicted by artists with different artistic styles.  A portrait does not have to be a carbon copy of the sitter to achieve the sitter\u2019s likeness. The concept of \u201clikeness\u201ditself connotes a level of difference between the image and the person. There is always a contrast between  features of the sitter and works of art produced.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Portraiture in the 19th Century<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Portraiture has served several functions through the course of human history.  Some of the most notable portraits served as symbols of nobility. Individuals with higher status could afford to commission portraits, such as royalty and nobility.  Portraits were utilized by individuals to remind them of loved ones or lost ones they were fond of. During the 17th and 18th century, portraits were utilized by powerful individuals to essentially assert their own cultivated self images to the public.  Personal qualities, such as prudence, strength, and leadership were conveyed to viewers through the artists\u2019 hand at the request of the sitters. The sitter’s accomplishments were also conveyed to viewers through the use of accessories. Portraits were also used as political tools to solidify an individuals leadership status, as will be explored later in this exhibit.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

 Reading A Portrait<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Reading a portrait requires looking  at various components of images. Portraits are very calculated forms of representation.  Reading portraits requires viewers to use visuals in artworks in order to decode specific messages.  Body language during the 19th century was specific to its time. Specific etiquette was required for men and certain gestures were  associated with different classes of people and levels of masculinity. During the 19th century, the culture of posture was essential to political life, which became associated with masculinity additionally.  Emphasis on proper etiquette overlapped in the world of art. Certain scholars have argued that erect posture, slim frames, and sober dress was associated with nobility, self-possession, dignity, and refinement. These character traits became associated with gentleman-like masculinity.  Additionally, facial expressions were significant. Artists during the 19th century would idealize portraits, and choose features to communicate messages to viewers. Attractiveness and beauty were utilized by artists to communicate desirable attributes.  Although facial expressions in 19th century portraits were muted, they still convey messages about their sitters’ identity to viewers. In reading portraits for this exhibit, details in each painting that communicated masculinity will be examined.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

19th Century American Masculinity<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

American masculinity during the 19th century was something that was carefully constructed.  This is especially true for portraits of the time. Masculinity was conveyed through the use of varying pictorial devices and visual imagery.  For example, the clothing of 19th century men was meant to convey a sense of dignity and virility. Masculinity was not something that was defined by body type or physical strength, as it would be today.  It was much more refined, and associated with gentle-man-like qualities. Refinement and status were stronger indications of masculinity rather than physical traits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

19th Century Western Male Portraits<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The Mercantile Library and Art Museum possess a strong collection of portraiture.  The portraits selected for this online exhibit are excellent examples of portraiture and its function as social and class identity symbols.  The portraits in the following digital exhibit assert their sitters with the identity they desired and carefully cultivated through their choice of attire, facial expression, background, and accessoriess.  The portraits presented in this section of the exhibit are the epitome of masculinity during 19th century America, especially in the Midwest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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George Washington; oil study after the portrait by Gilbert Stuart<\/em>, George Caleb Bingham, 1856<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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Born in 1811 in Arrow Rock, MO, Bingham was a Missouri artist and politician .  He began his artistic career at the age of 16, in 1827, when he began to render portraits. This portrait was a study of a more notable painting of George Washington by artist Gilbert Stuart. The expression Washington wears is reserved and cool, yet stern.   His ultimate goal in the painting was to depict Washington in the same manner of \u201cenlightened rulers\u201d. Bingham\u2019s portrait of Washington is a representation of 19th century male virtuoso. The portrait was created several years after Washington was elected into office.  Washington was the epitome of leadership during the 19th century. As a politician, Bingham would have been hyper aware of Washington\u2019s identity as the leader of America. Bingham himself was an experienced leader at the age of 45, and Washington could have been what he aspired to be in his political ventures.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Portrait of Auguste Chouteau, <\/em>Josef Salazar, ca 1784<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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This portrait of Auguste Chouteau was completed around 1784 by Spanish artist Josef Salazar.  Chouteau was essential to the founding of St. Louis, MO. Chouteau\u2019s posture allude to his position as a prominent member of St. Louis society.  The way he positions his right hand in his waistcoat was a very common portrait pose, not only during the 19th century, but also centuries beforehand.  Well known examples of this can be found in portraits of Napoleon Bonaparte. This is interesting, as Bonaparte was leader of Chouteau\u2019s home country, France.  Perhaps his adoption of this pose was meant to pay homage to his home country. The traits that became associated with this sort of body language during the time were \u201cmanly boldness\u201d, and Chouteau certainly exudes these traits in his portrait.   These traits have been associated with machismo (masculine pride). and leadership. Chotoeau\u2019s attire and facial expression are meant to add to Choteau\u2019s identity as a leader, and illustrate some of the portrait mechanisms present in 19th century America.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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 William Clark,as Governor of the Territory of Missouri, <\/em>Chester Harding, ca 1820<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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William Clark is one of the most notable figures in Mid-Western American history.  He is probably most well known for his famous expedition with Meriwether Lewis. Harding was a self taught artist from Massachusetts, who traveled to Missouri for work. The portrait style is \u201cthe Grand Manner\u201d tradition. This style of portraiture was common during the 19th century, with the black clothing, roman columns, views of the outside world, and red drapery repeated in representations of politicians. The style is associated with elements from antiquity, including poses from classical  paintings and sculpture. This format was used for gentlemen who represented 19th century \u201cmanliness\u201d. His hand resting upon the book represents his administrative responsibilities. The open window depicts the confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi River. This, coupled with his\/Harding\u2019s decision to utilize a form of representation that was reserved for men in power, illustrate Clark\u2019s identity as a virile leader. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Edward Johnston, <\/em>Sarah Miriam Peale, ca 1860<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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  Johnston was a librarian at the Mercantile Library during the Civil War.  The painting was created by the leading portrait artist of Philadelphia and St. Louis in the 19th century, Sarah Miriam Peale, in 1860.  Johnston\u2019s portrait was probably commissioned by the Mercantile\u2019s wealthy patrons. Johnston\u2019s beard frames his face, and softens his features, especially when coupled with his relaxed facial expression.  The expressions in the previous portraits were confrontational , while here, Peale\u2019s deviates. Peale utilizes fleshy tones to delineate Johnstons visage. The colors contrast the darkened background, and are highlighted through the warm section of the painting beneath Johnston\u2019s head.  Johnston chooses to present another aspect of male identity, being depicted in a softer light though his facial expression and the warmth of the light in the background. The lack of accessories and his eased demeanor contribute to presentation of another dimension of masculinity, one that differs from his contemporaries in this exhibit.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Joseph Charless Jr., <\/em>William Cogswell, ca 1859<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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This portrait of Joseph Charless Jr. was painted by William Cogswell in 1859.  Charless was the son of a prominent St. Louis printer. As the son of such an influential man, Charless. would have desired to exemplify the proper qualities of masculinity.  Cogswell utilizes the Grand Manner portrait formula to paint Chalress . The repetition of black clothing throughout these portraits was associated with trends in 1800s male fashion.   Men’s clothing was meant to be somber, austere, and non distracting. Men’s clothing was meant to \u201creject sensuality and individuality\u201d, and align with qualities of antiquity they desired to represent.   His seated position emphasizes his status, as seating in portraiture is associated with nobility. To the left of Charless an image of a newspaper, alluding to his family\u2019s business endeavors, and this is pushed by the document he holds in his hand.  His clothing, seated position, and the inclusion of the newspaper, held document, and reading glasses all point to his identity as a prominent member of St. Louis 19th century society.     <\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Native American Portraits<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

During the 19th century, Native Americans played an integral role in Midwestern culture and development.  They were essential to the development of the West, especially in places like Missouri.  Their roles as fur traders and explorers assisted in expanding the economy of the US. Native Americans were indispensable in events like the negotiation of the Louisiana Purchase, and without them America would not be the same.  The purpose of including these portraits is to provide a contrast to the previous portrait selections,and illustrate culturally different contemporaneous masculinity. The portraits of men previously analyzed were a result of a long line artistic devices utilized to convey messages about masculinity. When considering representations of Native Americans painted during this time period, one must take into account the role colonialism played in relationships between Native Americans and Westerners. This translated to what is called the colonial gaze. The colonial gaze can be thought of as visual strategies used to reaffirm colonial dominance over other races. However, this gaze is not present in the following portraits, as sitters are allowed to maintain their autonomy and masculinity through the way they are rendered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Charles Deas Portraits of Natives<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Charles Deas was an American painter who was acclaimed for his paintings of fur traders and Native Americans in the mid 19th century.  The Mercantile Library Art Museum possesses four of his renderings of Native Americans. These portraits are quite interesting, not only because of Deas\u2019  art style, but also because of what they say about Native American masculinity. He utilizes portrait techniques similar to those previously described and places them on non-Western subjects. He avoids using the colonial gaze through rendering them as individuals and not caricatures of their Native American race.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Winnebago with Bear-Claw Necklace and Spear, <\/em>Charles Deas, 1842<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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  In this portrait, a Native American can be seen clad in traditional native garb, holding a weapon in his right hand.  The term \u201cWinnebago\u201d refers to the sitter\u2019s tribe. In deciphering the meaning of Charles Deas\u2019 Native American portraiture, we must consider the objects held by their sitters  In this portrait, the sitter is wearing a bear claw necklace and holding a Native American weapon. The weapon he holds is a gunstock war club, which is understated by the slight smirk the sitter adorns.  Despite the fact he is rendered holding a weapon, his expression is warm and welcoming. His holding a weapon alludes to his possibly being a warrior. The bear claw necklace he wears also holds significance, and is another element that conveys his identity to viewers.  The necklace could allude to his strength and power, bears thought to be physically imposing and vicious creatures, and here he is depicted wearing the claws of one. The sitters war paint, bear claw necklace, and a weapon are symbols of Native masculinity.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Winnebago with Peace Medal and Pipe, <\/em>Charles Deas, 1842<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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In this painting, Deas depicts another Winnebago Native.  Depicting his age through the rendering of his wrinkles conveys his wisdom.  A peace medal adorns his neck, and his expression is somewhat weary, yet warm. He is also adorns a gray shawl, possibly made from a type of animal.  In his left hand, he holds a Native peace pipe. He is accompanied by two symbols of peace, a peace medal and a peace pipe. Peace medals were a method for America to forge relationships with Native Americans, especially during early expeditions.  They were primarily given to members of the tribe who had a high ranking, such as chiefs. The peace pipes were traditionally utilized during treaty ceremonies. They were actually sacred objects, and represented a connection with \u201cspirit power\u201d.  The identity of this sitter is presented through his age and the objects that surround him. His masculine traits are translated through his wisdom and leadership capability, which is communicated through his age and use of peace pipe and medal.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Winnebago with Bear claw Necklace and Spear, 1842<\/em>   <\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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This portrait is similar to the first native portrait analyzed, with similar red war paint and held weapon.  These details signify his status as a warrior of his tribe. This contrasts the soft, relaxed expression on his face.  This sitter is also depicted with a bear claw necklace, which also points to his position as a warrior when coupled with the use of the spear.  The spear could have been created from the bayonet of a Western soldier. Was the bayonet given to him? Or is it evidence of a battle won, similar to the bear claw necklace?  Similar to the other native portraits in this exhibit, this sitter is depicted only 3\/4ths up. This differs from the way in which his Western contemporaries were mostly depicted with their full physicality.  This could be thought to diminish the sitters, however, depicting the Natives in such a way emphasizes their musculature, and subsequently their virility.   <\/p>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Winnebago(Wa-kon-cha-hi-re-ga)in a Bark Lodge  , <\/em>Charles Deas, ca 1842<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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 Deas depicts a Winnebago chief in a bark log.  The fact that Deas decides to depict a specific location, and a natural one at that, allude to the sitter’s significance. The sitter’s appearance is very striking, painted with vibrant hues of red and green.  The red blanket in addition to his face paint provides a stark contrast to the rest of the painting. This contrast makes it difficult to notice one of the most important details of this painting; the images of the other natives in the lower portion of the painting.  This detail alludes to the fact that the sitter holds a higher position in his tribe. His gaze is indicative of a leader, appearing as if he is looking toward the future of his people. This sitter’s masculinity is portrayed through his heightened position in his tribe.  Leadership is a trait traditionally associated with masculinity. His stern expression, rebellious posture, and distant gaze are all traits traditionally associated with masculinity and male identity.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

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No-way-Ke-Sug-Ga<\/em>, Charles Bird King, ca 1826<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
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Charles Bird King was another artist known for his portraits of Native Americans during the 19th century. King rendered over 100 artworks of Native Americans as part of a government funded operation to create a collection of Native portraits. Here, he renders chief No-way- Ke-Su-Ga. The chief is painted with a flamboyant headdress and face paint of green hues, deviating from the reds used by the Winnebago tribe. His leadership status is signified through his wearing a peace medal, which were given exclusively to Native Americans during the 1800s. Similarly to two of Deas portraits above, the sitter is depicted wearing a bear claw necklace, alluding to his virility as a powerful warrior. He also holds a peace pipe, which further signify his higher status in his tribe. His gaze is confrontational, boring into the viewer from the picture plane. <\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The Mercantile\u2019s 19th century portrait collection reveal the complexities present in American masculinity.  Presenting portraits of Westerners and Natives provides a contrast to different types of Western masculinity in the 19th century. Western male masculinity in 19th century art was associated with leadership and gentleman-hood. Similarly, 19th Native American portraiture conveyed similar messages through the use of culturally different signifiers. <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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